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| Anthem: Homat el Diyar "Guardians of the Homeland" | ||||
 | ||||
| Capital | Damascus 33°30′N 36°18′E | |||
| Damascus | ||||
| Arabic | ||||
| Presidential republic | ||||
| -President | Bashar al-Assad | |||
| -Prime Minister | Muhammad Naji Etri | |||
| from France | ||||
| -Declared (1) | September 19361 | |||
| -Declared (2) | January 1, 1944 | |||
| -Recognized | April 17, 1946 | |||
| -Total | 183,885 km²(88th) 71,479sqmi | |||
| -Water(%) | 0.06 | |||
| -July 2005estimate | 19,043,000(55th) | |||
| -Density | 103/km²(96th) 267/sqmi | |||
| GDP (PPP) | 2005estimate | |||
| -Total | $71.74 billion(65th) | |||
| -Per capita | $5,348(101st) | |||
| HDI(2004) |  0.716(medium)(107th) | |||
| Syrian pound (SYP) | ||||
| EET(UTC+2) | ||||
| -Summer(DST) | EEST(UTC+3) | |||
| .sy | ||||
| +963 | ||||
| 1 The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by France. | ||||
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[edit] Etymology
The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the former colonial territories of Assyria such as Canaan and Aram. At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including from west to east Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria" (N.H. 5.66). By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea (or "Judea" and later renamed Palestina in AD135—the region corresponding to the modern states of Israel and Jordan and the Palestinian territories) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Mesopotamia.[edit] History
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[edit] Ancient Syria
Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history. Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest recorded Semitic language. At Ebla (Tel Merdikh), a royal palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry, diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. Ebla became world-famous for two industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.
[edit] Islamic Era
Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in AD 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory unrivalled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750, and the seat of the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq. Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.[edit] French mandate
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[edit] Independence
[edit] Military coups
Syria’s first coup d’état occurred In March 30, 1949, led by General Husni al-Zaim, a member of the Kurdish minority. Zaim was backed by the British, the French, the CIA, and by civilians who were tired from high prices, and from the leaderless Quwatli. People at that time believed that the coup was a result of the Arabic defeat at the 1948 war, as the officials declared, and at 1952, a similar coup occurred in Egypt for the same reason. Zaim declared that he would support any American pact in the Middle East, if they would support Syria and the area around. Zaim appointed himself a Prime Minister, and appointed a 7 members committee that drew up a secular constitution, that didn’t declare the state or official religion and didn’t declare a specific religion of the president. Zaim dissolved Parliament in April. Zaim Became a President in July 25, 1949 by a popular referendum winning 99.9. Zaim with secular views called women to stop the Islamic practice of veiling. Zaim appointed Muhsin al-Barazi a Prime Minister and then went on to launch large developing scale projects; by building schools, hospitals, roads, and by working on the project of Euphrates river dam to bring water to Aleppo, and initiating the Latakia harbor project. The new regime was overthrown in August by another coup d’état led by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi in august 14, 1949. Zaim and Barazi were executed after a military trial. Hinawi asked Hashim al-Atassi (president, 1936-39) to form a provisional government. Atasi as Prime Minister appointed a cabinet and under his leadership a counsel that held executive authorities was formed. General elections were held under a new electoral law (for the first time, women voted) in 15-16 November for a constituent assembly, which will draw up a civil constitution. The Aleppo party of Rushdi Kekhia the people’s party won major seats in the assembly. Rushdi Kekhia (leader of the people's party) was elected speaker of the constituent assembly, and Atasi was elected in December 14, 1949 as a head of state. A third coup d’état, led by Colonel Adib al-Shishakli, a former chief of police and head of security, occurred in December. Shishakli arrested the chief of staff, and the coup leader, Sami al- Hinawi, accusing him of instigation about the unity with Iraq, which was governed under the pro- British Hashemite family. The constituent assembly promulgated a new constitution in September 1950 and, assuming responsibility as the chamber of deputies, elected the head of state Hashim al-Atasi, to the presidency in September 7, 1950, and elected Rushdi Kekhia (ex-speaker of the constituent assembly) a speaker of the Parliament. In 1951 Baath party joined the Arab socialist party as the Baath Arab socialist party. .[neutrality disputed] [edit] Years of influence and presidency of Shishakli Shishakli asked Atasi to appoint Fawzi Selu (that allied himself with Shishakli) as a Minster of defense. Atasi appointed Maaruf al-Dawalibi (member of the People's Party) a Prime Minister, and asked him to appoint the cabinet. Douwalibi accepted this job but refused to appoint Selu as a Minster of Defense. In return, Shishakli carried out the fourth coup d’état in 29,November, 1951, arresting the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and people’s party members, and forcing president Atasi to resign. Shishakli, assuming responsibility as the Chief of Staff, dissolved Parliament, made every single political party and newspaper illegal, and appointed Fawzi Selu as President. Shishakli formed his own political party in August 25, 1952 called the Arab Liberation Movement ALM, and made it the only legal party in Syria. On July 11, 1953 Shishakli became President winning the plebiscite 99.8. Shishakli approved a new constitution in October 24, 1953. It made Syria a presidential republic with the ALM as the ruling party; the party held all 83 seats in the newly created chamber of deputies. The new constitution also restricted all civil liberties as provided by the 1950 constitution. Shishakli was ousted by coup d’état on February 24, 1954. Shishakli’s successors reinstated Atasi as president, reconvened the 1949 chamber of deputies, restored the constitution of 1950, reinstated the cabinet, and restored all Pre- Shishakli political elements..[4][edit] Civilian rule: 1954–1958
Free elections were held in September 1955, with a new chamber of deputies formed, and with Shukri al-Quwatli (president, 1943-49, and leader of the Syrian national party) as president. Sabri al-Asali was appointed Prime Minister in place of Fares al-Khoury by the following months. After 1955 many members of government became leftwing radical socialists. The Syrian Communist Party and Baath Party were allied with other leftwing socialist parties, and in 1957 they were in control of the government. Syria was declared pro soviet-anti western, resulting from deep disappointment with the west, especially with the British and the French and their actions toward Arabs in Paris conference. And it reached to a high pitch after the creation of Israel and the invasion of Sinai Peninsula. Syrian leaders initiated close and friendly relations with Egypt, under the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, as a result, president Shukri al-Quwatli dismissed the French and British ambassadors, and ordered the army to destroy the Tapline, running through Syria. Close relations with the Soviet Union were initiated; many civil and military treaties were signed. In 1957 Syria received aid from the Soviet Union, who agreed to provide aid to Syria for 12 years. The government teamed up with the USSR in 1955 against the creation of the Baghdad Pact, a defensive alliance formed in that year by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom. Syria also stood against the Eisenhower Doctrine, promulgated in January 1957 to face potential Communist spread in the Middle East. Conservatives tried to cut off the radicals, but failed. However a number of Conservative and right-wing parties’ deputies were accused of high treason in the same year.[edit] United Arab Republic
In February 22, 1958, Syria and Egypt merged as one state and created the United Arab Republic UAR, with Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt as president. Nasser appointed the UAR cabinet, and Syrian politicians held a number of departments. In the following months Nasser dissolved all Syrian political parties. From September 1958 to February 1959 a land reform program was introduced, and private agricultural farms and territories were nationalized and were given to peasants. In July 1961 a socialist program was introduced, nationalizing all private banks and factories. In September 28, 1961 a group of army officers led by Karim an-Nahlawi seized power and declared Syria independent again. Nasser decided not to resist the separatists.[edit] Post- union Regime
Civilian government was created in Damascus, and Syrian Arab Republic was declared the official name. Nazim al-Kudsi was elected a president, who appointed Marouf al-Douwalibi a Prime Minister. Marking anti-socialism sentiment, President Qudsi restored some of the nationalized factories and lands to their old owners. Qudsi regime was overthrown in March 28, 1962 by a military coup, lead also by Karim an-Nahlawi, who arrested president Qudsi and his Prime Minister Douwalibi. The 1950 constitution was restored with some amendments as the provisional constitution. Another military coup occurred in April 2, 1962, lead by Abdul Karim Zahreddin, who released Qudsi and Douwalibi, and dismissed Nahlawi from the Syrian army. President Qudsi appointed Khalid al-Azm a Prime Minister.[edit] Baath takeover
In March 8, 1963, the military committee of the Baath party carried out a coup d’état, and the Baath Party took control of the government. The Revolutionary Command Counsel (RCC) chaired by Luai al-Atassi was formed in the same year, and Atassi as the chairman of the RCC headed the state, and asked Salah al-Din al-Bitar to appoint the cabinet. The RCC dissolved Parliament also in the same year. In July 1963, Amin Hafez, a member of the Baath party replaced Atassi in Chairing the RCC. A provisional constitution was promulgated in 1964, which declared the Baath party as the ruling party, and allowed the RCC to represent the legislative branch, and to elect a presidential counsel that appoints the cabinet, and both represent the executive branch. Amin Hafez, chairman of the RCC, became the chairman of the presidential counsel, and In January, he introduced another socialist program, nationalizing all private schools and universities, western churches and missionaries which backed to the 19th century, plus more than one hundred private companies, to extend state’s ownership to electricity generation, oil companies and distribution, ginning of cotton, trade, and religious institutions. In February 23, 1966, a military coup lead by Hafez al-Assad and Salah Jadid, both are members of the Baath party, forcing Amin Hafez to resign. Assad and Jadid appointed Nureddin al-Atassi a president, and replaced the provisional constitution with the 1966 provisional constitution; however, another provisional constitution was approved in 1969.[edit] 1970–2000
[edit] Consolidation of power Upon assuming presidency, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962. [edit] Yom Kippur War Later in 1973, the Yom Kippur War broke out and "Syria mounted air attacks and heavy artillery shelling, and moved three divisions with some 1,400 tanks into the" Golan Heights to try and reclaim them from Israel.[1] Despite some initial successes, Syria's military was once again defeated by the IDF. At the end of the Yom Kippur war Israel still held the military advantage over Syria. Subsequent shuttle negotiations by Henry Kissinger resulted in Syria regaining control of part of the Golan, which the government portrayed as proof of victory. Since 1974, the Syrian-Israeli front has been quiet, with few disturbances of the cease-fire. [edit] Involvement in Lebanon In early 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon at the request of the Lebanese government to stop the civil war. Syria at first entered on the side of the Maronites. Syria sent troops that later became the main core of the Arab Deterrent Force (ADF) established by the Arab League in October 1976. Syria brought the warring factions together in the Taif Agreement to end the civil war. The civil war was declared over on October 13, 1990. Syria helped the Lebanese government to reestablish control over much of the country. In April 26, 2005, Syria withdrew all of its troops from Lebanon, after the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Al-Hariri. About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the civil war ended, to find employment and pursue business opportunities. In 1994, about 200,000 Syrian residents in the country were granted citizenship (see Demographics of Lebanon). [edit] Opposition and repression The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from Sunni Muslims called the Muslim Brotherhood who reject the basic values of the secular Baath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government sent 12,000 troops to crush the opposition centred in the city of Hama. During the two weeks the city was under siege its infrastructure was devastated by artillery fire and many thousands of civilians were killed and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited. A challenge from within the regime came in 1984, when Hafez was hospitalized after a heart attack. His brother Rifaat then attempted to seize power using internal security forces under his control. Despite his poor health, Hafez managed to assert control and sent Rifaat into exile. [edit] Relations with Iran During the Iran-Iraq War Syria sided with Iran and was isolated by the other Arab countries, with the exception of Libya. There have been accusations, mainly by the US and Israel, that Syria served as a conduit for Iranian arms destined for Hezbollah. [citation needed] [edit] Gulf War Syria's 1991 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez Al-Assad's meeting with then US President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000. [edit] Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad Hafez al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, after thirty years in office. Within a few hours following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On July 10, 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.[edit] 2000–2004
In his inauguration speech delivered at the People's Council on July 17, 2000, Bashar Al-Assad promised political and democratic reform. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000 to February 2001). Enthusiasm faded quickly as the government cracked down on civil forums and reform activists, but there was still a notable liberalization compared to the totalitarianism of Hafez. The lifting of bans on Internet access, mobile telephones and the spread of computer technology has had a great impact on the previously isolated Syrian society, and the secret police's presence in society has been eased. Today there exists a small but growing number of dissident intellectuals, as well as several formerly illegal opposition parties. However, government power rests firmly in the hands of the Baath, and police surveillance and occasional crackdowns keeps opposition activities limited. Syria opposed the Iraq War in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the U.S. swiftly deteriorated. At the moment there are negotiations on an Association Agreement between Syria and the European Union which would liberalize mutual trade. Syria is required to make certain political and economic reforms in order for this process to come into effect. Syria has been alleged be a state giving safe haven to Palestinian militant groups and financing Hezbollah's actions in Lebanon.[2] The offices of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad reside in Damascus with Sheikh Abdullah Ramadan being the most notable figure.[edit] Events since 2004
On February 14, 2005, Rafik Hariri, the former Prime Minister of Lebanon, was killed by a car bomb in Beirut. Many members of the Lebanese opposition and international observers alleged that Hariri was assassinated by Syria. Popular protests soon arose, composed primarily of Christians, Druze and Sunni Muslims, demanding the resignation of the pro-Syria government led by Omar Karami, as well as the withdrawal of all Syrian troops and intelligence operatives. On February 28, 2005, Karami's government resigned, although he was reappointed a few days later. On March 5, 2005, after intense international pressure, president Bashar al-Assad of Syria made a speech before the Syrian Parliament, where he announced that Syria would complete a full withdrawal from Lebanon by May of 2005, ending thereby a 30-year of military presence in this neighbouring country. Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon on April 26, 2005 under intense pressure from the Lebanese opposition and the international community. After two UN investigations (the FitzGerald Report and the Mehlis report) implicated Syrian officials in the Hariri killing, the Assad regime entered a turbulent period, the seriousness of the crisis signalled by the suicide of interior minister Ghazi Kanaan, as well as Western threats of economic sanctions. In December 2005 the former Vice-President Abdul Halim Khaddam claimed in an interview with Al-Arabiya, the Arab satellite channel, that Bashar al-Assad had, ‘threatened Rafiq al-Hariri months before the former Lebanese prime minister was assassinated.’ (Al Jazeera English 08.06.06) Syria denied the charges and called for Khaddam’s trial as a traitor. An in absentia arrest warrant was subsequently issued against him on 5th June 2006. On 15 December 2005 Mehlis was replaced as head of the UN investigation team by the Belgian Serge Brammertz.[5] Under the second part of the investigation, led by the Belgian Serge Brammertz, there has clearly been a better tone between the UN investigative team and the Syrian authorities. Brammertz, unlike his predecessor Mehlis, has also chosen to be discreet about his findings – making his final conclusions all the more unpredictable[6] – but he stated in his September 2006 interim report that Syria’s co-operation with the UN investigators, ‘remained generally satisfactory’ (HRW World Report 2007, p3) On June 16, 2006 the defence ministers of Iran and Syria signed an agreement for military cooperation against what they called the "common threats" presented by Israel and the United States. Details of the agreement were not specified, however Syrian defence minister Najjar said "Iran considers Syria's security its own security, and we consider our defense capabilities to be those of Syria." The visit also resulted in the sale of Iranian military hardware to Syria.[3][4][edit] Administrative divisions
Syria has fourteen governorates, or muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). A governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the interior, approved by the cabinet, and announced by executive decree, heads each governorate. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council. Note that parts that used to be under the Quneitra governorate are under Israeli control since 1967 (see Golan Heights).
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[edit] Major cities
Damascus - Aleppo - Latakia - Homs - Hama[edit] Minor cities
Al Hasakah - Deir ez-Zor - Ar Raqqah - Idlib - Daraa -Suwayda - Tartous[edit] Towns
Kamichli - Masyaf - Safita - Jableh - Al-Thawrah - Duma - Banias - Al-Nabk- [Qusair]- (Zabadani)[edit] Villages
Albaida - Marmarita - Mashta Al helou- [Rhablee]-(Sirghaya) - Fairouzeh - Zaidal[edit] Politics
Syria is a parliamentary republic. All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Baath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution. In addition, six other political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Baath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Baath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. The Baath Party dominates the Parliament, which is known as the People's Council (majlis ash-sha'b). Elected every four years, the Council has no independent authority. Although parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. It essentially functions as a rubber-stamp for the executive authority. There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Assad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000-February 2001).
[edit] Government
The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Baath Socialist Party with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, also is Secretary General of the Baath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. Along with the National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined.[edit] Human rights
A state of emergency imposed by the government has remained in effect since 1963 despite public calls by Syrian reformists for its repeal. Since then, security forces have committed human rights abuses including arbitrary arrest and detention, prolonged detention without trial, unfair trials in the security courts, and infringement on privacy rights. Amnesty International estimates around 600 political prisoners remain. Prison conditions do not meet international standards for health and sanitation. The regime restricts freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and political opposition. According to Arab Press Freedom Watch, the current government has a poor record on freedom of expression. In 2005 Freedom House rated political rights and civil liberties in Syria as “7” (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating) and gave it the freedom rating of “Not Free” [3]. There have been no changes in these ratings since 1972.[5] Human Rights Watch World Report 2007 confirmed that the human rights situation in Syria continued to deteriorate further in 2006. ‘thousands of political prisoners, many of them members of the banned Muslim Brotherhood and Communist Party remained in detention’ (HRW World Report 2007, p1). The Syrian authorities have refused to confirm the numbers and names of those detained but the Syrian Human Rights Committee based in London estimated the figure to be approximately 4,000. Syria continues to use the death penalty and HRW have documented many instances of arbitrary detention, torture and disappearances in 2006. Kurds continue to suffer discrimination and violence. At ten percent of the population they form the largest ethnic minority group in Syria. An estimated 300,000 Syria born Kurds are still denied citizenship. Despite a constitution which guarantees gender equality there have been no changes in 2006 to the discriminatory laws which affect millions of women in both the public and private spheres. For example the penal code continues to contain a provision that allows a judge to suspend punishment for a rapist if he marries his victim and within marriage women are still treated as their husband’s chattel.[edit] Geography
[edit] Economy
Syria is a middle-income, developing country with a diversified economy based on agriculture, industry, and energy. During the 1960s, citing its state socialist ideology, the government nationalized most major enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and class disparities. This legacy of state intervention and price, trade, and foreign exchange controls still hampers economic growth, although the government has begun to revisit many of these policies, especially in the financial sector and the country's trade regime. Despite a number of significant reforms and ambitious development projects of the early 1990s, as well as more modest reform efforts currently underway, Syria's economy still is slowed by large numbers of poorly performing public sector firms, low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity. Despite the mitigation of the severe drought that plagued the region in the late 1990s and the recovery of energy export revenues, Syria's economy faces serious challenges. With almost 60% of its population under the age of 20, unemployment higher than the current estimated range of 20%-25% is a real possibility unless sustained and strong economic growth takes off. Oil production has levelled off, but recent agreements allowing increased foreign investment in the petroleum sector may boost production in two to three years. The bulk of Syrian imports have been raw materials essential for industry, agriculture, equipment, and machinery. Major exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and cereal grains. Earnings from oil exports are one of the government's most important sources of foreign exchange. Of Syria's 72,000 square miles (186,000km²), roughly one-third is arable, with 80% of cultivated areas dependent on rainfall for water. In recent years, the agriculture sector has recovered from years of government inattentiveness and drought. Most farms are privately owned, but the government controls important elements of marketing and transportation.[edit] Demographics
Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density is about 258 per square mile (99/km²). Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrolment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 86% for males and 73.6% for females.[edit] Ethnic groups
Arabs (including some 400,000 Palestinian refugees) make up over 85% of the population. The Kurds, linguistically an Indo-Iranian people, constitute the largest ethnic minority, making up 10% of the population. Most Kurds reside in the northeast corner of Syria and many still speak the Kurdish language. Sizable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. The Assyrian Christians are also a notable minority (about 3%) that live in north and northeast Syria. Syria also holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. Ethnic Syrians are an overall Semitic Levantine people. While modern-day Syrians are commonly described as Arabs by virtue of their modern-day language and bonds to Arab culture and history — they are in fact a blend of the various ancient Semitic groups indigenous to the region who in turn admixed with Arab settlers and immigrants who arrived following the Arab expansion. There is also a smaller degree of admixture from non-Semitic peoples that have occupied the region over time.[edit] Religion
Syria's population is approximately 90% Muslim and 10% Christian. Among Muslims, 75% are Sunni;[6] the rest are divided among other Muslim sects, mainly Alawis and Druze, but also a small number of Isma'ili and twelver Shi'a, which has increased dramatically due to the influx of Iraqi refugees. Christians, a sizable number of which are also found among Syrian Palestinians, are divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox ("Greek Orthodox") make up 50-55% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Latin, Armenian, Maronite, Caldean, Melkite and Syriac) make up 18%, Assyrian Christians, Armenian Oriental Orthodox centred in Aleppo, the native Syriac Orthodox Church and several smaller Christians groups account for the remainder. There also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community that is confined mainly to Damascus; remnants of a formerly 40,000 strong community. After the 1947 UN Partition plan in Palestine, there were heavy pogroms against Jews in Damascus and Aleppo. The Jewish property was confiscated or burned and after the establishment of the State of Israel, many fled to Israel and only 5000 Jews were left in Syria. Of these, 4000 more left after agreement with the United States in the 1990s. As of 2006, there are only 100-200 Jews left in Syria.[edit] Languages
Arabic is the official and most widely spoken language. Kurdish is widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French, but English is more widely understood. Armenian and Türkmen are spoken among the Armenian and Türkmen minorities. Aramaic, the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Islam and Arabic, is spoken among certain ethnic groups: as Syriac, it is used as the liturgical language of various Syriac denominations; modern Aramaic (particularly, Turoyo language and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) is spoken in Al-Jazira region. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma`loula, and two neighbouring villages, 35 miles (56km) northeast of Damascus.[edit] Culture
Syria offered the world the Ugarit cuneiform, the root for the Phoenician alphabet, which dates back to the fourteenth century BC. The alphabet was written in the familiar order we use today. Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Cicero was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch. Philip Hitti claimed, "the scholars consider Syria as the teacher for the human characteristics," and Andrea Parrout writes, "each civilized person in the world should admit that he has two home countries: the one he was born in, and Syria." Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history. Importance is placed on family, religion, education and self discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkes in all their variations and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs. Traditional Houses of the Old Cities in Damascus, Aleppo and the other Syrian cities are preserved and traditionally the living quarters are arranged around one or more courtyards, typically with a fountain in the middle supplied by spring water, and decorated with citrus trees, grape vines, and flowers. Outside of larger city areas such as Damascus, Aleppo or Homs, residential areas are often clustered in smaller villages. The buildings themselves are often quite old (perhaps a few hundred years old), passed down to family members over several generations. Residential construction of rough concrete and blockwork is usually unpainted, and the palette of a Syrian village is therefore simple tones of greys and browns. Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the nineteenth century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer. Syria has a small cinema industry, with production entirely in the hands of the state National Cinema Organisation, which employs film-makers as civil servants. Funding is only sufficient to produce approximately one feature film every year, and these are often then banned by the political censor, but have won prizes at international festivals. Notable directors include Omar Amirali, Usama Muhammad, and Abd al-Latif Abd al-Hamid. Syrian directors have also worked abroad, in Egypt and Europe. There was a private sector presence in the Syrian cinema industry until the end of the 1970s, but private investment has since preferred the more lucrative television serial business. Syrian soap operas, in a variety of styles (all melodramatic, however), have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world. Although declining, Syria's world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Middle Eastern dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves), shawarma ,and falafel are very popular in Syria as the food there is diverse in taste and type. Restaurants are usually open (food is served outdoors).| | | | |
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[edit] Holidays
| January 1 | New Year's Day | عيد راس السنة الميلادية ‘Īd Ra’s as-Sanät al-Mīlādīyä | |
| March 8 | March 8 Revolution | ثورة الثامن من اذار Ṯaurät aṯ-Ṯāmin Āḏār | Celebrates seizure of power by Baath Party |
| March 21 | Mother's Day | عيد الأم ‘Īd al-’Umm | |
| April 17 | Independence Day | عيد الجلاء ‘Īd al-Ğalā’ | Celebrates evacuation of last French troops |
| variable | Gregorian Easter | عيد الفصح غريغوري ‘Īd al-Fiṣḥ Ġrīġūrī | According to the Gregorian calendar |
| variable | Julian Easter | عيد الفصح اليوليوسي ‘Īd al-Fiṣḥ al-Yūliyūsī | According to the Julian calendar |
| May 1 | Labor day | عيد العمال ‘Īd al-‘Ummāl | |
| May 6 | Martyr's Day | عيد الشهداء ‘Īd aš-Šuhadā’ | Anniversary of execution of Syrian nationalists in Damascus by the Turks |
| October 6 | October War | حرب تشرين التحريرية Harb Teshreen Al-Tahririyyah | Celebrating Yom Kippur War |
| December 25 | Christmas | عيد الميلاد المجيد ‘Īd al-Mīlād al-Mağīd | |
| Dhul Hijja 10 | Eid al-Adha | عيد الأضحى ‘Īd al-’Aḍḥà | |
| Shawwal 1 | Eid al-Fitr | عيد الفطر ‘Īd al-Fiṭr | |
| Rabi`-ul-Awwal 12 | Mawlid | المولد النبوي al-Maulid an-Nabawī | Muhammad's birthday |
[edit] Fairs and festivals
| Flower Festival | Latakia | April |
| Traditional Festival | Palmyra | May |
| International Flower Fair | Damascus | May |
| Marmarita Festival | Marmarita | August |
| Vine Festival | As Suwayda | September |
| Cotton Festival | Aleppo | September |
| Damascus International Fair | Damascus | September |
| Festival of Love | Lattakia | September |
| Bosra Festival | Bosra | September |
| Film and Theatre Festival | Damascus | November |
